fbpx

Vitamina D

Visitas: 0

A menudo, cuando hablamos de la vitamina D no podemos evitar pensar en los huesos, ya que es conocida por todos por ser reguladora del calcio y del fósforo.

A día de hoy, conocemos mucho más de ella.

Puede disminuir el riesgo de sufrir enfermedades, por lo que está vinculada con nuestro sistema inmunológico. También es un biomarcador pronóstico, por lo que aumenta la eficacia de los tratamientos y la supervivencia de nuestras células ante enfermedades.

¿De dónde la obtienen?

La vitamina D se produce en la piel de la mayoría de los mamíferos. En los perros, sin embargo, la evidencia sugiere que la producción de vitamina D mediada por rayos UV es esencialmente insignificante, lo que significa que en perros solo se debe contabilizar la ingesta dietética. 

En el caso de los gatos es igual, pero la necesidad de Vitamina D es menor proporcionalmente; esto puede tener su razón en que los gatos son principalmente animales nocturnos  y su metabolismo podría no depender tanto de fuentes exteriores.

  

En otro estudio se alimentaron cachorros con una dieta sin suplemento de vitamina D, desarrollando Raquitismo, que no se pudo evitar a pesar de la exposición a la luz solar.

La vitamina D se almacena en el tejido adiposo (grasa), pero también en el músculo.

Después de la ingestión o producción de la piel, la vitamina D es transportada al hígado por las proteínas transportadoras, allí sufre una transformación por las enzimas del citocromo P450 y se convierte en 25-hidroxivitamina D o 25 (OH) D.

La 25 (OH) D es uno de los metabolitos más estables de la vitamina D y se ha aceptado como un marcador de sus niveles en sangre.

Concentraciones bajas de este metabolito en sangre se asocian con un mayor riesgo de cáncer colorrectal en humanos.

La producción primaria de la forma más activa de la Vitamina D tiene lugar en los riñones por acción de una enzima (citocromo P450 27B1), pero también ocurre en muchos otros tejidos como piel, colon y páncreas, evidenciando las funciones de la vitamina D en otros tejidos aparte del esqueleto.

La producción de la vitamina D se regula por la hormona paratiroidea, la concentración de calcio en sangre, fósforo y la propia Vitamina D. La 1,25 (OH) 2D controla los niveles de calcio y fósforo del cuerpo aumentando la absorción intestinal y estimulando la movilización de los huesos entre muchas otras funciones.

Según NRC, la cantidad requerida diaria de vitamina D3 para un perro de 25Kg sería de 5µg (200 UI), pero ojo, esta medida no la podemos sacar para perros de otro peso mediante una regla de tres.

Si elegimos un suplemento de vitamina D para perros, este DEBE reflejar claramente la dosificación adecuada según el peso. Ejemplo, el aceite de hígado de bacalao.

Si hacemos una dieta casera, por ejemplo BARF, el valor requerido por el NRC se da cuando un 15-20% de la parte cárnica sea a base de pescado azul. Esto puede ser calculado y aplicado a diario o, una vez a la semana, reemplazar toda la parte cárnica por pescado azul.

—————————————————————————————————————————————————————————

Los gatos tienen una necesidad de Vitamina D menor que la de los perros, pero también es considerado un nutriente esencial para los gatos por parte de los organismos oficiales.

Según NRC, la cantidad requerida diaria de vitamina D3 para un gato de 5Kg sería de 0.5µg (20 UI).

De nuevo, como pasa en el caso de los perros, cualquier producto que compremos debe tener señalizada claramente la cantidad de Vitamina D (en µg o en UI) en función del peso del animal.

En el caso de los gatos, por necesitar menos, sí podríamos lograr suplementar de manera natural con aceite de hígado de bacalao, con fitoplancton o con un 15-20% de pescado en su dieta.

Referencias
  1. Vitamin D: The “sunshine” vitamin, R. Nair, 2012
  2. Factor Klotho: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-32507-1_9
  3. American Association of Feed Control Officials. (2014). American Association of Feed Control Officials Official Publication, 1st ed. Association of American Feed Control Officials Inc. Washington, DC.
  4. Al-Badr, W., and Martin, K. J. (2008). Vitamin D and Kidney Disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol.3: 1555-1560.
  5. Ananthakrishnan, A. N., Khalili, H., Higuchi, L. M., Bao, Y., Korzenik, J. R., Giovannucci, E. L., Richter, J.M., Fuchs, C.S., and Chan, A. T. (2012). Higher predicted vitamin D status is associated with reduced risk of Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology.142(3): 482-489.
  6. Annweiler, C., Rolland, Y., Schott, A. M., Blain, H., Vellas, B., Herrmann, F. R., and Beauchet, O. (2012). Higher vitamin D dietary intake is associated with lower risk of Alzheimer’s disease: a 7-year follow-up. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci.67(11): 1205-1211.
  7. Arnold, A., and Elvehjem, C.A. (1939). Nutritional requirements of dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc.95: 187.
  8. Barroga, E. F., Kadosawa, T., Asano, K., Okumura, M., and Fujinaga, T. (1998).Apoptosis induction of POS canine osteosarcoma cells by vitamin D and retinoids. J Vet Med Sci.60: 1269– 1272.
  9. Barroga, E. F., Kadosawa, T., Okumura, M., and Fujinaga, T. (2000). Influence of vitamin D and retinoids on the induction of functional differentiation in vitro of canine osteosarcoma clonal cells.Vet J.159: 186-193.
  10. Bush, W. W., Kimmel, S. E., Wosar, M. A., and Jackson, M. W. (2001). Secondary hypoparathyroidism attributed to hypomagnesia in a dog with protein-losing enteropathy. J Am Vet Med Assoc.219 (12): 1708, 1732-1734.
  11. Calvo, M. S., Whiting, S. J., and Barton, C. N. (2004). Vitamin D fortification in the United States and Canada: current status and data needs. Am J Clin Nutr.80(6): 1710S-1716S.
  12. Calvo, M. S., Whiting, S. J., and Barton, C. N. (2005). Vitamin D intake: a global perspective of current status. J Nutr.135(2): 310-316.
  13. Cortadellas, O., Fernandez del Palacio, M. J., Talavera, J., and Bayon, A. (2010). Calcium and phosphorus homeostasis in dogs with spontaneous chronic kidney disease at different stages of severity. J Vet Intern Med.24: 73-79.
  14. Davies, J., Heeb, H., Garimella, R., Templeton, K., Pinson, D., and Tawfik, O. (2012). Vitamin D Receptor, Retinoid X Receptor, Ki-67, Survivin, and Ezrin Expression in Canine Osteosarcoma. Vet Med Int.doi: 10.1155/2012/761034.
  15. Dawson-Hughes, B., Heaney, R. P., Holick, M. F., Lips, P., Meunier, P. J., and Vieth, R. (2005). Estimates of optimal vitamin D status. Osteoporos Int.16: 713-716.
  16. Delaney, S. J. (2015). Serum ionized calcium, 25-hydroxyvitamin D, and parathyroid hormone in two dogs fed a homemade diet fortified with vitamin D2.In: 2015 Annual AAVN Symposium Order of Abstracts. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr.99: 810-824.
  17. FEDIAF European Pet Food Industry Federation. F.E.D.I.A.F. Nutritional Guidelines for complete and complementary pet food for cats and dogs.Av. Louise 89 B-1050 Bruxelles. fediaf.org.
  18. Feldman, D., Krishnan, A. V., Swami, S., Giovannucci, E., and Feldman, B. J. (2014). The role of vitamin D in reducing cancer risk and progression. Nat Rev Cancer.14(5): 342-357. Feskanich, D., Ma, J., Fuchs, C. S., Kirkner, G. J.,
  19. Hankinson, S. E., Hollis, B. W., and Giovannucci, E. L. (2004). Plasma vitamin D metabolites and risk of colorectal cancer in women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 13(9): 1502-1508.

    Fleet, J., Desmet, M., Johnson, R., and Li, Y. (2012). Vitamin D and cancer: a review of molecular mechanisms. Biochem J.441(1): 61-76.

  20. Friedrich, M., Diesing, D., Cordes, T., Fischer, D., Becker, S., Chen, T. C., Flanagan, J. N., Tangpricha, V., Gherson, I., Holick, M. F., and Reichrath, J. (2006). Analysis of 25- hydroxyvitamin D3-1 α-hydroxylase in normal and malignant breast tissue. Anticancer Res.26: 2615–2620.
  21. Galler, A., Tran, J. L., Krammer-Lukas, S., Holler, U., Thalhammer, J. G., Zentek, J. and Willmann, M. (2012). Blood vitamin levels in dogs with chronic kidney disease. Vet J.192: 226- 231.
  22. Garg, M., Lubel, J. S., Sparrow, M. P., Holt, S.G., and Gibson, P. R. (2012). Review article: vitamin D and inflammatory bowel disease–established concepts and future directions. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 36 (4): 324-344.
  23. Garland, C. F., Gorham, E. D., Mohr, S. B., Grant, W. B., Giovannucci, E. L., Lipkin, M., Newmark, H., Holick, M. F., and Garland, F. C. (2007). Vitamin D and prevention of breast cancer: pooled analysis. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol.103: 708-711.
  24. Gerber, B., Hässig, M., and Reusch, C. E. (2003). Serum concentrations of 1,25- dihydroxycholecalciferol and 25-hydroxycholecalciferol in clinically normal dogs and dogs with acute and chronic renal failure. Am J Vet Res.64: 1161-1166.
  25. Gerber, B., Hauser, B., and Reusch, C. E. (2004). Serum levels of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol and 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol in dogs with hypercalcemia.
  26. Vet Res Commun.28: 669-680. González, E. A., Sachdeva, A., Oliver, D. A., and Martin, K. J. (2004). Vitamin D Insufficiency and Deficiency in Chronic Kidney Disease. A single center observational study. Am J Nephrol.24: 503-510.
  27. Gow, A. G., Else, R., Evans, H., Berry, J. L., Herrtage, M. E., and Mellanby, R. J. (2011). Hypovitaminosis D in dogs with inflammatory bowel disease and hypoalbuminaemia.J Small Anim Pract.52: 411-8.
  28. Gressner, O. A., Lahme, B., and Gressner, A. M. (2008). Gc-globulin (vitamin D binding protein) is synthesized and secreted by hepatocytes and internalized by hepatic stellate cells through Ca(2+)-dependent interaction with the megalin/gp330 receptor. Clin Chim Acta.390: 28- 37.
  29. Griffiths, P., and Fairney, A. (1988). Vitamin D metabolism in polar vertebrates. Comp Biochem Physiol B.91: 511-516.
  30. Hazewinkel, H. A., How, K. L., Bosch, R., Goedegebuure, S. A., and Voorhout, G. (1987). Inadequate photosynthesis of vitamin D in dogs. In: Nutrition, Malnutrition, and Dietetics in the Dog and Cat. Proceedings of the International Symposium held at Hanover, September 3 to 4, 1987 (Edney, A.T.B., ed.) British Veterinary Association in collaboration with the Waltham Centre for Pet Nutrition.
  31. Heaney, R. P., Horst, R. L., Cullen, D. M., and Armas, L. A. (2009). Vitamin D3 distribution and status in the body. J Am Coll Nutr.28(3): 252-256.
  32. Holick, M. F., MacLaughlin, J. A., Clark, M. B., Holick, S. A., Potts, J. T., Anderson, R. R., Blank, I. H., Parrish, J. A., and Elias, P. (1980). Photosynthesis of previtamin D3 in human skin and the physiologic consequences. Science.210(4466): 203-205.
  33. Holick, M. F. (1995) Vitamin D: Photobiology, metabolism, and clinical applications. In:Endocrinology 3rd Ed. DeGroot LJ, Besser M, Burger HG, Jameson JL, Loriaux DL, Marshall JC, O’Dell WD, Potts JL, Rubenstein AH, editors. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA. Holick, M. F. (2004).
  34. Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases, cancers, and cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr.80(6): 1678S-1688S.
  35. Holick, M. F. (2007). Vitamin D Deficiency. N Engl J Med.357: 266-81.
  36. Holick, M. F. (2009). Vitamin D status: measurement, interpretation, and clinical Ann Epidemiol.19:73-78.

    Hollis, B. W. (2005). Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels indicative of vitamin D sufficiency: implications for establishing a new effective dietary intake recommendation for vitamin D. J Nutr.135: 317-322.

  37. Holowaychuk, M. K., Birkenheuer, A. J., Li, J., Marr, H., Boll, A., and Nordone, S.K. (2012). Hypocalcemia and hypovitaminosis D in dogs with induced endotoxemia. J Vet Intern Med.26: 244-51.
  38. How, K.L., Hazewinkel, H. A. and Mol, J. A. (1994). Dietary vitamin D dependence of cat and dog due to inadequate cutaneous synthesis of vitamin D. Gen Comp Endocrin.96:12-18.
  39. Hyppönen, E., Laärä, E., Reunanen, A., Järvelin, M. R., and Virtanen, S. M. (2001). Intake of vitamin D and risk of type 1 diabetes: a birth-cohort study. Lancet.358(9292): 1500-1503.
  40. Jenab, M., Bueno-de-Mesquita, H. B., Ferrari, P., van Duijnhoven, F. J., Norat, T., Pischon, T., Jansen, E.H., Slimani, N., Byrnes, G., Rinaldi, S.,and Riboli, E. (2010). Association between pre-diagnostic circulating vitamin D concentration and risk of colorectal cancer in European populations: a nested case-control study. BMJ.340:b5500.
  41. Judd, S. E., and Tangpricha, V. (2009). Vitamin D deficiency and risk for cardiovascular disease. Am JMed Sci.338(1): 40-44.
  42. Kamen, D. L., and Tangpricha, V. (2010). Vitamin D and molecular actions on the immune system: modulation of innate and autoimmunity. J Mol Med.88(5): 441-450.
  43. Kealy, R. D., Lawler, D. F., and Monti, K. L. (1991). Some observations on the dietary vitamin D requirement of weanling pups. J Nutr.121: S66-S69.
  44. Kimmel, S. E., Waddell, L. S., and Michel, K. E. (2000). Hypomagnesemia and hypocalcemia associated with protein-losing enteropathy in Yorkshire terriers: five cases (1992-1998). J Am Vet Med Assoc.217: 703-706.
  45. Kraus, M. S., Rassnick, K. M., Wakshlag, J. J., Gelzer, A. R. M., Waxman, A. S., Struble, A. M., and Refsal, K. (2014). Relation of vitamin D status to congestive heart failure and cardiovascular events in dogs. J Vet Intern Med.28(1): 109-115.
  46. Kritikos, G., Weidner, N., Atkinson, J. L., van Hoek, I., and Verbrugghe, A. “Analysis of vitamin D3 concentrations in commercial dog foods”. (2015).In: 2015 Annual AAVN Symposium Order of Abstracts. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr. 99: 810-824.
  47. Kumar, R. (1986). The metabolism and mechanism of action of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3.Kidney Int.30: 793-803.
  48. Larsen, J. A., Parks, E. M., Heinze, C. R., and Fascetti, A. J. (2012). Evaluation of recipes for home-prepared diets for dogs and cats with chronic kidney disease. J Am Vet Med Assoc.240(5): 532-538.
  49. Lips, P. (2006). Vitamin D physiology. Prog Biophys Mol Biol.92: 4-8.
  50. Mawer, E. B., Schaefer, K., Lumb, G. A., and Stanbury, S. W. (1971). The metabolism of isotopically labelled vitamin D, in man: the influence of the state of vitamin D nutrition. Clin Sci.40: 39-53.
  51. Melamed, M. L., Michos, E. D., Post, W., and Astor, B. (2008). 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and the risk of mortality in the general population. Arch Intern Med.168(15): 1629-1637.
  52. Merlo, D.F., Rossi, L., Pellegrino, C., Ceppi, M., Cardellino, U., Capurro, C., Ratto, A., Sambucco, P. L., Sestito, V., Tanara, G., and Bocchini, V.(2008). Cancer incidence in pet dogs: findings of the Animal Tumor Registry of Genoa, Italy. J Vet Intern Med.22: 976-984. Michaud, L. and C. A. Elvehjem. (1944). The nutritional requirements of the North Am Vet. 25: 657.
  53. Moore, C., Murphy, M. M., Keast, D. R., and Holick, M. F. (2004). Vitamin D intake in the United States. J Am Diet Assoc.104(6): 980-983.
  54. Morris, J. G. (1999). Ineffective vitamin D synthesis in cats is reversed by an inhibitor of 7- dehydrocholestrol-Δ7-reductase. J Nutr.129(4): 903-908.
  55. Munger, K. L., Zhang, S. M., O’reilly, E., Hernan, M. A., Olek, M. J., Willett, W. C., and Ascherio, A. (2004). Vitamin D intake and incidence of multiple sclerosis. Neurology.62(1): 60- 65.
  56. Nachreiner, R. F., Refsal, K. R., Rick, M., Mazaki-Tovi, M., and Sist, M. (2014). Endocrinology reference ranges. Diagnostic Center for Population & Animal Health, Michigan State University, Lansing, Michigan, United States of America. Available from: http://www.dcpah.msu.edu/sections/endocrinology/. Accessed on October 19, 2014.
  57. Nagode, L. A., Chew, D. J., and Podell, M. (1996). Benefits of calcitriol therapy and serum phosphorus control in dogs and cats with chronic renal failure: both are essential to prevent or suppress toxic hyperparathyroidism. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract.26(6): 1293-1330. National Research Council (U.S.) Ad Hoc Committee on Dog and Cat Nutrition. (2006). Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
  58. Osuga, T., Nakamura, K., Morita, T., Lim, S. Y., Nisa, K., Yokoyama, N., Sasaki, N., Morishita, K., Ohta, H.,and Takiguchi, M. (2015). Vitamin D Status in Different Stages of Disease Severity in Dogs with Chronic Valvular Heart Disease. J Vet Intern Med.29(6): 1518-1523.
  59. Pappa, H. M., Gordon, C. M., Saslowsky, T. M., Zholudev, A., Horr, B., Shih, M. C., and Grand, R. J. (2006). Vitamin D status in children and young adults with inflammatory bowel disease. Pediatrics.118(5): 1950-1961.
  60. Pilz, S., Tomaschitz, A., März, W., Drechsler, C., Ritz, E., Zittermann, A., Cavalier, E., Pieber, T.R., Lappe, J.M., Grant, W.B., Holick, M. F., and Dekker, J. M. (2011). Vitamin D, cardiovascular disease and mortality. Clin Endocrinol.75(5): 575-584.
  61. Rassnick, K. M., Muindi, J. R., Johnson, C. S., Balkman, C. E., Ramnath, N., Yu, W., Engler, K. L., Page, R. L., and Trump, D. L.(2008). In vitro and in vivo evaluation of combined calcitriol and cisplatin in dogs with spontaneously occurring tumors. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol62: 881-891.
  62. Ravani, P., Malberti, F., Tripepi, G., Pecchini, P., Cutrupi, S., Pizzini, P., Mallamaci, F., and Zoccali, C. (2009). Vitamin D levels and patient outcome in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int75: 88-95.
  63. Remillard, R. L. (2008). Homemade diets: attributes, pitfalls, and a call for action. Top Companion Anim Med.23(3): 137-142.
  64. Rosol, T. J., Nagode, L. A., Couto, C. G., Hammer, A. S., Chew, D. J., Peterson, J. L., Ayl, R. D., Steinmeyer, C. L., and Capen, C. C. (1992). Parathyroid hormone (PTH)-related protein, PTH, and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in dogs with cancer-associated hypercalcemia. Endocrinology.131: 1157 – 1164.
  65. Rosa, C. T., Schoeman, J. P., Berry, J. L., Mellanby, R. J., and Dvir, E. (2013). Hypovitaminosis D in dogs with spirocercosis. J Vet Intern Med.27(5): 1159-1164.
  66. Ross, A. C., Manson, J. E., Abrams, S. A., Aloia, J. F., Brannon, P. M., Clinton, S. K., Durazo- Arvizu, R.A., Gallagher, J.C., Gallo, R.L., Jones, G., and Kovacs, C. S. (2011). The 2011 report on dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D from the Institute of Medicine: what clinicians need to know. JClin Endocrinol Metab.96(1): 53-58.
  67. Roudebush, P., Polzin, D. J., Adams, L. G., Towell, T. L., and Forrester, S. D. (2010). An evidence‐based review of therapies for canine chronic kidney disease. J Small AnimPract.51(5): 244-252.
  68. Russell, D. S., Rassnick, K. M., Erb, H. N., Vaughan, M. M., and McDonough, S. P. (2010). An immunohistochemical study of vitamin D receptor expression in canine cutaneous mast cell tumours. J Comp Pathol.143: 223–226.
  69. Sharp, C. R., Selting, K. A., and Ringold, R. (2015). The effect of diet on serum 25- hydroxyvitamin D concentrations in dogs. BMC Res Notes.8(1): 442.
  70. Selting, K. A., Sharp, C. R., Ringold, R., Thamm, D. H., and Backus, R. (2014). Serum 25- hydroxyvitamin D concentrations in dogs–correlation with health and cancer risk. Vet Comp doi: 10.1111/vco.12101.
  71. Spoo, J. W., Downey, R. L., Griffitts, C., Horst, R. J., Levine, C. B., Childs, R. M., and Wakshlag, J. J. (2015). Plasma Vitamin D Metabolites and C‐Reactive Protein in Stage‐Stop Racing Endurance Sled Dogs. J Vet Intern Med. 29(2): 519-525.
  72. Stockman, J., Fascetti, A. J., Kass, P. H., and Larsen, J. A. (2013). Evaluation of recipes of home-prepared maintenance diets for dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc.242(11): 1500-1505.
  73. Trang, H. M., Cole, D. E., Rubin, L. A., Pierratos, A., Siu, S., and Vieth, R. (1998). Evidence that vitamin D3 increases serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D more efficiently than does vitamin D2. Am JClin Nutr.68(4): 854-858.
  74. Tryfonidou, M. A., Stevenhagen, J. J.,van den Bemd, G. J., Oosterlaken-Dijksterhuis, M. A., DeLuca, H. F., Mol, J. A., van den Brom, W. E., van Leeuwen, J. P., and Hazewinkel, H. A.

    (2002). Moderate cholecalciferol supplementation depresses intestinal calcium absorption in growing dogs. J Nutr.132: 2644-2650.

  75. Tryfonidou, M. A., Holl, M. S., Stevenhagen, J. J., Buurman, C. J., Deluca, H. F., Oosterlaken- Dijksterhuis, M. A., van den Brom, W. E., van Leeuwen, J. P. and Hazewinkel, H. A. (2003). Dietary 135-fold cholecalciferol supplementation severely disturbs the endochondral ossification in growing dogs. Domest Anim Endocrinol.24: 265-285.
  76. Vicchio, D., Yergey, A., O’Brien, K., Allen, L., Ray, R., and Holick, M. (1993). Quantification and kinetics of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 by isotope dilution liquid chromatography/thermospray mass spectrometry. Biol Mass Spectrom. 22(1): 53-58.
  77. Wakshlag, J. J., Rassnick, K. M., Malone, E. K., Struble, A. M., Vachhani, P., Trump, D. L., and Tian, L. (2011). Cross-sectional study to investigate the association between vitamin D status and cutaneous mast cell tumours in Labrador retrievers. Br J Nutr.106(S1): S60-S63.
  78. Wang, L., Song, Y., Manson, J. E., Pilz, S., März, W., Michaelsson, K., Lundqvist, A., Jassal, S.K., Barrett-Connor, E., Zhang, C., Eaton, C. B., May, H. T., Anderson, J. L, and Sesso, H. D. (2012). Circulating 25-hydroxy-vitamin D and risk of cardiovascular disease a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes.5(6): 819-829.
  79. Weidner, N., Woods, J. P., Conlon, P., Meckling, K. A., Atkinson, J. L., Bayle, J., Makowski, A., Horst, R. L., and Verbrugghe A.(2015). Dietary vitamin D intake and vitamin D status in canine cancer patients.In:2015 Annual AAVN Symposium Order of Abstracts. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr.99: 810-824.
  80. Wheatley, V.R., and Sher, D. W. (1961). Studies of the lipids of dog skin I: The chemical composition of dog skin lipids. J Invest Derm.36: 169.
  81. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. (2010). Continuous Update Project Breast Cancer 2010 Report Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Breast Cancer: A Global Perspective. Washington, DC: World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Available from http://www.aicr.org/continuous- update-project/breast-cancer.html. Accessed on 5 December 2015.
  82. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. (2011). Continuous Update Project Colorectal Cancer 2011 Report Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Colorectal Cancer. Washington, DC: World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research.
  83. Available from: http://www.aicr.org/continuous-update- project/colorectal-cancer.html. Accessed on 1 December 2015.

    Zehnder, D., Bland, R., Williams, M. C., McNinch, R. W., Howie, A. J., Stewart, P. M., and Hewison, M. (2001). Extrarenal Expression of 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3-1alpha-Hydroxylase 1. J Clin Endocrinol Metab.86(2): 888-894.

  84. Zicker, S. C. (2008). Evaluating pet foods: how confident are you when you recommend a commercial pet food?. Top Companion Anim Med.23(3): 121-126.
  85. Zitterman, A. (2003). Vitamin D in preventive medicine: are we ignoring the evidence? Br J Nutr.89: 552-572.
Publica un comentario

Deja un comentario

 

ENTRAR